"normal" actions are treated as abnormal and strange or disordered
Counselling in and
across Cultures
In the same fashion that psychological
disorders and syndromes are thought
to be universal or culturally bound, it is
also possible to consider psychological
treatments that exist across cultural
worlds.
Cultural-Specific
perspectives
Indigenous psychotherapies
and invovling cermonies that sometimes make use of a mandala as pact of the ceremony (i.e., Navaho).
(Health systems) (TCM, Santeria, Mayan Medicine)
In Japan there are two well known approaches Morita & Naikan therapy.
While meditating for hours interviewers periodically stop in
and ask questions:
what
other people have done for them, what they have done for others,
and how they cause difficulties for others.
Psychotherapy and counselling in a Multicultural Context
Inconsidering counselling in cross-cultural or multi-cultural settings,
one can assume some universal etics of human needs and suffereing,
however one must also be prepared to understand and work through
an emic cultural perspective and a personal idographic approach.
Ibrahim (1984) - Offers an existential approach to cross-cultural counselling
Five universal dimensions to human experience
1) the relation of people to nature (Umwelt) in harmony, under control
2) the temporal focus of human life - past, present, future & death
3) the modality of human activity - being or becoming, agency
4) the modality of human relationships - (Mitwelt) relational or isolated
5) the ethico-moral modality of human nature (Eigenwelt) good / bad / immutable
Beth Hedva - takes a Jungian approach making use of cultural myths
as part of the counselling process as does Alan Roland's psychanalytical approach.
Uchida, Kitayama et al. (2008) Individualism and Collectivism play a role
in terms of seeking social support and counselling.
Those from Individualist cultures seek and benefit more from explicit social support
while those from collectivist societies seek social harmony, fear losing face
will benefit from implicit (indirect) forms and tend to avoid explicit (direct) social support.
Cortisol levels are reduced (less stress) for Asians with implicit support and Americans with explicit support.
Sue & Sue (1981) Point out four major barriers to
cross-cultural counselling "that may act as a source of conflict"
1) Counsellors expect the client to exhibit "openness,
psychological mindedness, or sophistication" being highly expressive
in verbal, emotional or behavioural communication and insight.
2) One-to-one focus on intimate aspects of client's
life are expected
to be discussed. If this does not fit with culture, client may be seen
as resistant or defensive.
3) Counselling is often ambiguous and requires client
to do most
of talking, may be an unfamiliar situation and lead to shying away.
4) Long term goals to explain cause-effect
relationship and separate
physical and mental well-being also come into conflict with clients'
interests and expectations.
Draguns (1981) - Five common themes to counselling
across cultures
1) The Emic - Etic distinction - "struggle to separate the humanly
universal and the culturally particular elements of experience that
enter into the counsellor-counsellee relationship"
2) Relationship vs.
Technique - which is more important in counselling?
Need for flexibility of technique and active intervention.
The "nature of the relationship ... most interculturally robust"
3) Bilaterality of the
Relationship - Do both client and counsellor
learn through the process of counselling?
4) The alloplastic vs.
autoplastic dilemma - does one change the
social situation to fit the needs of the individual or change the
individual to fit the needs of the social setting and structure? Or Both?
5) Futuristic thinking
- Need to deal with more issues and concerns,
such as psychological tests in intercultural counselling, preparing
the individual for a new culture, cultural stereotyping, characteristics
needed by an intercultural counsellor, problem of countertransferance.
Westwood & Borgen (1989) - Model for counselling
that requires
a look at communication and the background or
reference group
for the individual.
Draws from Lewin's work on the 'life-space' or
'perceptual field' where people "perceive the world in accordance
with existing beliefs, values, taboos, roles and models of communication" (p. 118).
Need to asses the 'subjective'
culture for clients, including their
perceptions of space, time, roles, goals, emotions, etc.
- Asking oneself about clients: are they "stereotypical" or "prototypical" in nature?
- Probably not, must ask to what extent does this person
participate in their familial - traditional culture and
to what extent in
the "Canadian" culture that is the "mainstream?"
- Community,
familial,
and individual acculturation (as in Berry, 1997).
General acceptance of diversity or of uniformity? What social and institutional supports are present that encourage or inhibit participation in various cultures.
Berry et a.l, (1992) -Context of culture(s) is important: is it a pluralistic (multi-) cultural setting or a mono-cultural context.
Marv Westwood (1990) - as a counsellor or clinician one must become
aware of
the nature of ethnic groups and the attitudes of members of those groups.
One must know what sorts of social relationships are accepted and what
sorts are not, being sensitive to the "local
culture" of the community and family.
Simple solutions
from traditional North-American counselling
(like non-directive or client
centred
approaches) have built in biases
that might exacerbate the situation.
E.g. counselling a young Indo-Canadian woman about her feelings towards
a young man who may or may not be accepted by her family.
Perhaps
have an uncle or cousin talk to the father if there is an issue of
paternal
control
over the daughter's life (as in arranged marriages).
-Through self awareness one is able
to help others become more
self-aware and find ways to solve their own problems as they may arise.
Knowing one's physical, social and spiritual place in the world is central
to well-being of both counsellors and clients.
Ishu Ishiyama (1989) - Self Validation is an important
aspect of adjustment
to a new culture.
When one moves away from friends and family and
"normal" behaviours, one often loses sources of validation that are
needed.
They are often replaced by sources of invalidation where
"normal" actions are treated as abnormal and strange or disordered
International Student Counselling at Camosun
College
Brian Herron &
References
Blue, A. W. & Annis, R. C. (1983). Counselling
Native Canadians: Issues and Answers. Paper presented at the Invitational
Symposium on Inter-Cultural Counselling, at Queens University, October24, 1983.
Draguns, J. G. (1981). Counseling across Cultures:
Common Themes and Distinct Approaches.
Ibrahim, F. A. (1984). Cross-cultural counseling and
psychotherapy: An existential-psychological approach. International Journal for
the Advancement of Counselling, 7, 159-169.
Ishiyama, F. I. (1989). Understanding Foreign
Adolescent's Difficulties in Cross-cultural Adjustment: A self-Validation Model.
Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 4 (2), 41-56.
Westwood M. J. & Borgen, W. A. (1989). A
culturally embedded model for effective intercultural communication.
Sue, P. & Sue, G. (1981). Barriers to Effective
Cross-Cultural Counseling. In Sue & Sue (Eds.) Counseling the culturally
different.