and nurture are reciprocally determined. Environment
Summary
Basic Properties
Definitions & Uses
Language and Evolution
Human propensity
Language in other Species
Language and Thought
Piaget
Vygotsky
Communication and Language
Semantics vs. Pragmatics
Language and Culture
Symbols - written or acoustical codes that make reference to and stand for real objects and actions, often displaced.
Sign - a mark or movement that is used to represent something or some action. ASL uses hand signs.
Phonemes - are the basic units of verbal language. Potentially can produce about 100 such sounds. English contains ~45, most languages vary between 20 & 80.
Semantics - is the study of the meaning behind language as communication. Meaning is generally unrelated to sounds.
Morphemes - are the basic units of meaning that compose linguistic communication.
Humans appear to be infinitely generative in the production of novel expressions. Meaning is often implicit - sarcasm, irony, metaphor, even "make me an ice cream cone."
Syntax - involves the rules governing the use of language units in conveying meaning (the grammar).
Skinner (1957) contends that language is learned like anything else, through operant conditioning. "tacts" and the association of a verbal stimulus become its foundation. Reinforcement keeps it going.
Challenges to this approach: reference to class or category not specific object.
Chomsky (1957) made a distinction between deep structure (meaning) and surface structure (what is said).
-The rules of language construction (syntax) enables multiple surface structures (sentences) and multiple deep (meanings).
This shows that we havea biological propensity for language and develop it in meaningful patters.
-Metaphor of gardening, helping the flower grow and blossom
Human propensity - to produce language is remarkable, infants babble, toddler's start around age two, systematic errors (over uses of rules) occur at specific ages (wented).
-6 months old respond to "mommy" or "daddy"
-7 months old detect phoneme pattern ga ti ga, ti bo bo, and familiar words
Critical period for the development of language is prior to 12 year (the case of Genie), but stimulation throughout early years maintains it. Accents and second languages become exceedingly difficult to acquire.
Recent studies have shown that early exposure to language (i.e. Cantonese) can have lasting effects even though it might not be remembered. (Listen to Quicks&Quarks Nov 22, 2014).
-The grammar "settings" get fixed and difficult to change for phoneme recognition and production. Also ASL
Appears to be strong innate innate capacity that requires experience for stimulation and not learned simply through reinforcement!
- is quite easily observed from Honey Bees to Parrots, Dolphins, Whales, and Apes.
Alex the Parrot - responds at 80% accuracy to questions about objects. Uses about 70 words and knows 30 objects. can answer "how many red balls?"
Dolphins appear to show syntax and order in understanding of commands of hand signals & arm gestures.
Humpback Whales - have long songs that change are shared by families and changed each year. Some improvisation on the theme, not sure of any meaning but they seem to have culture and communication.
Apes
Kohler (1925) Sultan the chimpanzee in Canary Islands showed insight into problem solving, not trial and error (skinner)
Gardner's (1969) Washoe - knew 132 words and sign simple sentences. She clearly mourned the loss of her baby and signed that a new baby was not hers. She taught her adopted baby Loulis & other chimps to sign!
Terrance & Paterson (1986) - taught Koko 600 words, including conveying sad & happy moods, lies, games,... kitten
-Also taught Nim Chimpsky but later decided that he and other apes must be performing "Clever Hans" phenomenon, where they are responding to non-verbal cues. project nim
Savage-Rumbaugh's (1993) Kanzi - began with a lexigram board, understands spoken English and learned from watching his mother get taught. making tools
Apes appear to meet semantics, generative and displacement criteria for language use, but still debate...
Apes can communicate through meaningful sequence of symbols equivalent to a 2-year old human,as merely a protolanguage without true grammar, however, recent studies with Panbanisha (Kanzi's Sister) have show that the can perform at a level of a 5-7 year old human. (see video).
Various relationships between language and thought exist.
Linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that our thought is determined or shaped by our language. snow, time, colours
Piaget - thought and language develop together as one cognitive competence. Concepts are bound to language
Vygotsky - thought and language are separate, sometimes know things but cannot articulate it. With the help of others we often extend our "zone of proximal development", they help us express what we think.
Logical Positivism - suggests that meaning is in the verification (through observation) of what the proposition states. The semantics can be verified only empirically. This is the form of language that copmuter can recognize, literal meaning.
Doing things with words - Searle contends that our utterances are rarely transparent, need to know the 'local' meaning or usage of the language. "Put it in the boot", "It's hot in here"
Likewise Poetry - is built upon subtle meaning, as is humour particualrly in the form of sarcasm and pun.
Language across Cultures - has traditionally been seen through the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Some cultures describe some aspects of the natural world while others describe other aspects. Language of science (neutral / objective) gets the truth; common languages do not.
Language IS Culture - a view supported by those in cultural psychology where language, mythology, customs and rituals are the essential features of a culture. As such the common (everyday) meanings of words identify the culture. Must know cultures from within their language.
Music as language - is seen where communication of emotions and feelings often comes through music. Most languages have a tonal quality called prosody, some languages are classified as tonal languages (i.e., Cantonese & Mandarin - which produce many more people with "perfect pitch" when it comes to music perception.
Dance or movement as language (body language). Have dance cultures where expression and meaning is conveyed within a tradition. Story telling (mythological) too.
The basis of human nature is intertwined with culture as nature and nurture are reciprocally determined. Environment